Dictionary of Law Terms

angielsko-polski

polsko-angielski

English-Polish

Polish-English

Słownik terminologii prawniczej

Dictionary

of Law Terms

English-Polish

Polish-English

By Ewa Myrczek

Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck

Warszawa 2005

Słownik

terminologii

prawniczej

angielsko-polski

polsko-angielski

Opracowanie Ewa Myrczek

Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck

Warszawa 2005

Dictionary of Law Terms

Słownik terminologii prawniczej

Cover by/Projekt okładki:

Editing/Redakcja:

Robert Rogiński

Tomasz Rodzik

Typesetting/Skład i łamanie:

Printing and binding/Druk i oprawa:

Krzysztof Biesaga

WDG Drukarnia w Gdyni Sp. z o.o.

ISBN: 83-7387-808-4

All inquires should be addressed to:

Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck Sp. z o.o.

9, Gen. Zajączka Str.

01-518 Warsaw

©Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck 2005

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means,

electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage

or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.

Table of contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI

Wstęp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII

References / Bibliografia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII

Abbreviations / Wykaz skrótów . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX

Introduction to legal translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI

Dictionary

Part I. English-Polish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Part II. Polish-English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Test Your Knowledge of Legal English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Key and Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

V

Preface

This bilingual DICTIONARY OF LAWTERMS is intended for students of the

law, legal secretaries, paralegals, legal executives, ESP teachers, translators and professional

people who need English for their present or future day-to-day work in the

legal field.

Though this dictionary lays no claim to comprehensiveness, it aims at serving

three primary functions. Firstly, it contains an exposition of essential legal terms and

phrases. Entries derive largely from the traditional core of legal studies – from Constitution,

Contracts, Torts, Civil law, Criminal procedure, Land law, Labour law,

Family law but also from the fields of European Community law, Bankruptcy and

Reorganisation law, Companies law, and Customs and Fiscal law.

Secondly, the Introduction to legal translation gives helpful guidance on some

of the most vexing questions that legal writers, translators and law students face,

from offering advice on usage and grammar to covering issues related to text-normative

equivalence in translation of legislative texts. Since translators-to-be and law

students need to be familiarised with the principles of specific conventions related to

syntax, lexis and stylistics of the legal Polish and English language as applied in the

field of legislative texts, these rules and principles have been described in the Introduction

to legal translation, thus providing prospective readers with practical

guidelines on legislative drafting and translation. In accordance with the rules of legal

modality, legislative sentences have been subdivided into prohibitions, obligations,

permissions and non-permissions, and illustrated with instructive examples

for translation of statutes.

Thirdly, this book contains Tests which can be used both for self-study and in

class. Students preparing for the Test of Legal English Skills examinations and other

equivalent examinations will find this part particularly relevant to their needs.

A wide range of topics is covered through a variety of exercises which include gap

filling and matching. The book includes a comprehensive key with not only answers

to the exercises but also some translation hints which should help students to distinguish

between similar but distinct legal terms.

Unlike most dictionaries, which are devoted to questions of terminology, this

book has also dealt with problems that are related to textual and pragmatic considerations,

taking account of legal construction rules applicable in civil law and common

law systems accordingly. Endeavours have been made to include a body of

practical information that can orient and complement the learning process of translator-

trainees and self-learners; teachers are also encouraged to make use of it.

Jaworze, August 2005 Ewa Myrczek

VI

Wstęp

S£OWNIK TERMINOLOGII PRAWNICZEJ jest skierowany do studentów

prawa, tłumaczy przysięgłych, pracowników kancelarii prawniczych, nauczycieli

specjalistycznego języka angielskiego oraz wszystkich zainteresowanych pogłębianiem

swej wiedzy z zakresu tekstów prawnych i prawniczych.

Książka składa się z trzech częoeci, z których najważniejsza i najobszerniejsza zawiera

podstawowe terminy prawnicze z zakresu prawa konstytucyjnego, cywilnego,

handlowego, karnego, skarbowego, europejskiego, prawa pracy, etc. Wszystkie

hasła ułożono w porządku alfabetycznym.

We Wstępie do tłumaczenia tekstów prawnych podano informacje, których

próżno szukać w innych słownikach – dotyczą one norm tekstowo-językowych charakterystycznych

dla angielskich i polskich tekstów prawnych. W ujęciu porównawczym

omówiono warstwę składniową tekstów prawnych, ze szczególnym

naciskiem na czas gramatyczny i typy zdań złożonych. Opisano również warstwę

leksykalną przepisów nakazujących, zakazujących i opisowych. Poruszono także

kilka zagadnień dotyczących warstwy tekstowej, m.in. struktury aktów prawnych

i nazewnictwa ich jednostek redakcyjnych. Wszystkie rozważania zostały poparte

odpowiednimi przykładami w języku polskim i angielskim.

Szczególny nacisk położono na styl redagowania tekstów ustawowych w obydwu

systemach w oparciu o wydawane przez władze ustawodawcze podręczniki

(drafting manuals), które w przypadku języka polskiego przybrały postać urzędowego

zbioru dyrektyw techniki prawodawczej, noszących nazwę Zasady techniki

prawodawczej. Jednocześnie, zwrócono również uwagę na fakt archaiczności języka

angielskich tekstów prawnych i związanej z tym małej ich komunikatywności.

Obecnie toczy się dyskusja na temat przeprowadzenia koniecznych reform w celu

uproszczenia i ujednolicenia tegoż języka (plain English movement).

S£OWNIK TERMINOLOGII PRAWNICZEJ zawiera również Testy sprawdzaj

ące wiedzę z polskiej i angielskiej terminologii prawniczej. Takie ćwiczenia,

tradycyjnie „zarezerwowane” dla podręczników do nauki języka angielskiego, zosta

ły tutaj umieszczone celowo: mają pomóc w przygotowaniu do egzaminów

TOLES (Test of Legal English Skills). Testy kontrolne o zróżnicowanym stopniu

trudności zawierają liczne przykłady słów i konstrukcji najczęoeciej mylonych przez

użytkowników i osoby uczące się języka angielskiego, zaś załączony klucz podaje

odpowiedź na każde pytanie testowe, często opatrzoną dodatkowymi uwagami dla

uczącego się.

W przeciwieństwie do większości dostępnych na polskim rynku specjalistycznych

słowników z zakresu prawa, ten dwujęzyczny „wokabularz” zawiera również

dodatkowe informacje, które powinny okazać się przydatne w szczególności pocz

ątkującym tłumaczom w przekładzie tekstów prawnych, zaś studentom prawa

w ich tworzeniu.

Jaworze, sierpień 2005 r. Ewa Myrczek

VII

References

Bibliografia

E. Alcaraz, B. Hughes, Legal Translation Explained, Manchester 2002, (LTE).

J. Bogudziński, K. Buczkowski, A. Kaznowski, Wzory umów i pism. Compendium of

Legal Templates, Warszawa 2002, (WUIP).

W.J. Brown, GCSE Law, London 1993, (GL).

J. Evans (ed.), Law of International Trade, London 2001, (LOIT).

B.A. Garner (ed.), Black’s Law Dictionary, USA 2004, (BLD).

B.A. Garner, A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage, Oxford 1995, (MLU).

H. Gubby, English Legal Terminology. Legal concepts in language, Den Haag 2004,

(ELT).

R. Hara, J.T. Murphy, T. Wardyński, English-Polish Business Glossary. Angielsko-polski

encyklopedyczny słownik biznesu, Warszawa 1996, (EPBG).

S.I. Hayakawa (ed.), Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms and Related Words, London

1971, (CMG).

M. Jakubaszek, Legal English, Warszawa 2004, (LE).

J. Justyńska, J. Justyński, The Main Institutions of the English Legal System, Toruń

1998, (MIślS).

I. Kienzler, New English Business, Gdynia 2001, (NEB).

D. Kierzkowska (ed.), The Polish Civil Code, Warszawa 1997, (PCC).

J.S. Lynton, Ballentine’s legal dictionary and thesaurus, New York 1995, (BLDAT).

E. Martin, A Dictionary of Law, Oxford/New York 1994, (DL).

J.E. Penner, Mozley&Whiteley’s Law Dictionary, London, Edinburgh, Dublin 2001,

(MWLD).

C.R. Robertson, The Complete Book of Business Forms and Agreements, New York

1994, (BFAA).

F. Russell, Ch. Locke, English Law and Language, London 1992, (ELAL).

301 Legal Forms, Letters & Agreements, London 2002, (LP).

VIII

Abbreviations

Wykaz skrótów

BLD Black’s Law Dictionary

BLDAT Ballentine’s legal dictionary and thesaurus

CMG Cassell’s Modem Guide to Synonyms and Related Words

DL A Dictionary of Law

ELAL English Law and Language

ELT English Legal Terminology. Legal concepts in language

EPBG English-Polish Business Glossary

GL GCSE Law

LE Legal English

LOIT Law of International Trade

LP 301 Legal Forms, Letters & Agreements.

LTE Legal Translation Explained

MIślS The Main Institutions of the English Legal System

MWLD Mozley & Whiteley’s Law Dictionary

PCC The Polish Civil Code

IX

Introduction

to legal translation

1. Introduction

Law is concerned with human behaviour. Although different societies encourage different

forms of behaviour all human beings have the capacity to behave in any way

prescribed, on the condition we do understand what the law requires us to do. The

same applies to legal translation, which in order to be successful in terms of communication

must incorporate target language-oriented text-normative equivalents.

Legal translators are usually ‘left to their own devices’ in making their decisions

as to the right stylistics and tone to be adopted in translation. These decisions are

usually based on comparative analysis of random parallel texts, which may prove to

be a time-consuming and tiresome activity.

This ‘introduction’ aims to offer practical information regarding the conventions

and norms which are characteristic of legislative texts. It is also designed to aid

translators in their work by offering a practical comparative manual of the Polish

and English drafting styles and other useful information on legal translation.

1.1. Legal norm

A legal norm can be defined to contain a normative statement that produces some

legal effects. Any legal norm must convey information in order to fulfil its function

of communicating standards of behaviour. Consequently, a norm serves as a scheme

of interpretation1.

The problem of the legal norm has also been discussed in terms of ‘legislative

sentences’2 which consist of the following elements:

– fact-situation (Tatbestand) which specifies the conditions under which the particular

rule operates – in other words, it gives conditions of application of a given

norm;

– statement of law (Tatfolge) which prescribes the action to be taken and by whom

in the event the conditions constituting the fact-situation are met; in point of fact,

it determines legal modality of the norm3.

1.2. Fact-situation in English legislative sentences

The statement of law, which specifies its modality, is always in the main clause (or

clauses), whereas the elements pertaining to the fact-situation are more flexible, being

formulated as adverbial modifiers in a subordinate ‘if’ or ‘where’ clause.

The clauses which express fact-situation can be introduced in English by conjunctions

such as ‘if’ (jeżeli, jeśli), ‘on condition that’ (pod warunkiem, że...), ‘provided

that’ (pod warunkiem, że..., o ile...), ‘providing that’ (pod warunkiem, że...,

o ile...), ‘so / as long as’ (dopóki..., tak długo jak..., pod warunkiem, że...) and ‘unless’

(jeżeli nie..., jeśli nie..., o ile nie..., chyba że...). In the case of English legislative

texts, however, legal rules are being formulated mostly as conditional sentences,

with ‘if’ – clauses and ‘where’– clauses introducing the fact-situation.

XIII

1 Van Kralingen, http://websetr.cs.uga.edu/~maduko/SemWeb/coc-frame-ont-for-law.pdf

2 One of the first analyses of legislative texts was written in 1843 by an English barrister

named George Code.

3 See: S. Šarèević, New Approach to Legal Translation. The Hague/London/Boston, 2000,

p. 136.

1.3. Fact-situation in Polish legislative sentences

The clauses which express fact-situation can be introduced in Polish by conjunctions

such as jeżeli, jeśli, w przypadku gdy, w wypadku gdy, pod warunkiem, chyba

że, o ile, w razie. See the following examples:

jeżeli = ‘where’ / ‘if’ / ‘embedded fact situation’

Jeżeli wspólnik nie uiścił dopłaty w określonym terminie, obowiązany jest do

zapłaty odsetek ustawowych... . (KSH4 Art. 178 § 2)

Where a shareholder fails to make an additional payment by the specified date, he

shall be obliged to pay statutory interest... . (CCC1)5

If a shareholder does not pay the additional contribution within a specified deadline,

he shall pay statutory interest... . (PCCC)6

w wypadku gdy = ‘when’

Przepis powyższy stosuje się odpowiednio w wypadku, gdy umowa została zawarta

w imieniu osoby prawnej, która nie istnieje. (KC7 Art. 39 § 2)

The above provision shall correspondingly apply when a contract has been concluded

in the name of a legal person which is non-existent. (PCC8)

pod warunkiem = ‘on condition that’

Stosowanie niebezpiecznych substancji i niebezpiecznych preparatów chemicznych

jest dopuszczalne pod warunkiem zastosowania oerodków zapewniających

pracownikom ochronę ich zdrowia i życia. (KP9 Art. 221 § 3)

Hazardous chemical substances and preparations may be used on condition that

measures are taken to protect the health and life of employees. (PLC)10

chyba że = ‘unless’ / ‘save as’

Jeżeli akcjonariusz nie dokonał wpłaty w terminie określonym w § 1, jest on

obowiązany do zapłacenia odsetek ustawowych za opóźnienie lub odszkodowania,

chyba że statut stanowi inaczej. (KSH Art. 330 § 5)

If the shareholder fails to make the payment on the date specified in § 1, the shareholder

shall pay statutory interest on delay or damages, unless the statutes provide

otherwise. (PCCC)

Save as otherwise provided in the company articles, a shareholder who has failed to

make payment by the date referred to in paragraph 1 shall be liable to pay statutory

interest for the default, or damages. (PCOCPAC)11

XIV

Introduction to legal translation

4 Kodeks spółek handlowych (KSH).

5 Bem R., E. Kucharska, J. Marynowicz, A. Mączka, Code of Commercial Companies, Kraków

2002 (CCC1).

6 K. Michałowska, Polish Commercial Companies Code, Warszawa 2001.

7 Kodeks Cywilny (KC).

8 D. Kierzkowska (ed.), The Polish Civil Code, Warszawa 1997 (PCC).

9 Kodeks Pracy (KP).

10 K. Michałowska, Polish Labour Code, Warszawa 2003 (PLC).

11 D. Kierzkowska (ed.), The Polish Code of Commercial Partnerships and Companies, Warszawa

2001 (PCOCPAC).

o ile = ‘if’

Zmiany i uzupełnienia zgłoszone przez wierzycieli mogą być przedmiotem obrad

i głosowania, o ile upadły na nie się zgodzi. (PU Art. 185)12

The alterations and amendments submitted by the creditors may be discussed at the

debates and may be put to the vote if the bankrupt approves them. (PCC)

1.3.1. Embedded fact-situation in Polish legislative sentences

The fact-situation may also take the form of an embedded modifier which is introduced

in Polish legislative sentences by means of w razie, w przypadku, w wypadku.

See the examples below:

(i) w razie = ‘in case’

Wrazie dokonanego naruszenia może on także żądać, ażeby osoba, która dopuoeciła

się naruszenia, dopełniła czynności potrzebnych do usunięcia jego skutków... . (KC).

Art. 24

In case of an infringement he may demand that the person who committed the infringement

perform acts necessary to remove its effects... .(PCC)

(ii) w razie = ‘upon’ / ‘should’

Statut może stanowić, że akcje ulegają umorzeniu w razie ziszczenia się określonego

zdarzenia bez powzięcia uchwały przez walne zgromadzenie. (KSH Art. 359 § 6)

The statutes may provide for share redemption upon the occurrence of a specific

event without a resolution of the general meeting. (CCC1)

The company articles may provide for redeeming shares without the resolution of

the general meeting should a certain event occur. (PCOCPAC)

(iii) w razie = ‘when’ / ‘in the case where’ / ‘in the case of’

Przepisy § 1, 2, 4 i 5 stosuje się odpowiednio w razie ustania stosunku zależności.

(KSH Art. 6 § 6)

The provisions of §§ 1, 2, 4, and 5 above shall apply accordingly to instances when

the dependence relationship has ceased. (CCC1)

The provisions of § 1, 2, 4 and 5 shall apply mutatis mutandis in the case where a relation

of dependence ceases to exist. (PCCC)

The provisions of paragraphs 1, 2, 4 and 5 shall apply accordingly in the case of cessation

of a relationship of dependency. (PCOCPAC)

(iv) w wypadku = ‘if’

Przepis § 2 stosuje się odpowiednio w wypadku wydzierżawienia przedsiębiorstwa

lub ustanowienia na nim użytkowania.

The provision of paragraph 2 shall apply correspondingly if an enterprise is leased or

a usufruct is established on it.

2. Tenses in legislative drafting

2.1. Tense in English legislative drafting

The present tense used in drafting of French and Polish legislative texts is generally

rendered by the mandatory ‘shall’ in English. According to modern drafting manu-

XV

2.1. Tense in English legislative drafting

12 Prawo upadłościowe (PU).

als, however, the drafter may also use present tense since the majority of rules have

a continuing effect. They speak at the time of reading, not merely at the time of their

adoption. The present tense thus includes the future tense. Therefore, the word

‘shall’ is not to be used for stating a rule of law; the drafter should use it only to differentiate

between mandatory and permissive statements. See the example below:



A violation of any provision of this article

shall be a misdemeanour.

A violation of any provision of this article

is a misdemeanour.

The practice of using ‘shall’ to state a legal result is called the ‘false imperative’

and some legislative drafters and translators suggest that ‘shall’ should be abandoned.

2.2. Tense in Polish legislative drafting

There are no separate grammar rules to be applied in Polish legislative texts. One

must only remember that the present tense is used in Polish drafting to express both

normative content of a legislative sentence (legal / deontic modality) and fact-situation

(epistemic modality).

See the following example:

stosuje się = ‘shall be governed’ / ‘shall apply’

W sprawach określonych w art. 1 § 1 nieuregulowanych w ustawie stosuje się

przepisy Kodeksu cywilnego. (KSH Art. 2)

All matters set forth in Article 1 § 1 which are not regulated in this Act shall be governed

by the provisions of the Civil Code. (CCC1)

The provisions of the Civil Code shall apply to any matters specified in Article 1,

paragraph 1 not regulated in this Act. (PCOCPAC)

3. Permission and authorisation in legislative sentences

3.1. Permission in English legislative sentences

As acknowledged by many lawyers, an act which is not prohibited is permitted. Permissions

and authorisations convey rights, privileges and powers on legal subjects.

Permissions usually express a facultative operation which a person or legal institution

is free to do. In other words, permissions cannot be violated. It must also be remembered

that the granting of a permission serves as a means of cancelling a command,

requirement, or a prohibition or making an exception to a command, requirement,

or prohibition13. As for authorisations, they are usually defined as a special

type of legal speech act in which the permissive ‘may’ can be interpreted as expressing

a duty.

‘May’ as permitted action

The English drafters are advised to use ‘may’ to authorise, but not require a person to

take an action. To put it differently, ‘may’ should be used to denote discretionary authority.

XVI

Introduction to legal translation

13 See: S. Šarèević, op. cit., p. 142.

‘It is lawful to’/ ‘it shall be lawful to’ = dopuszcza się / jest zgodne z prawem

It is lawful for a person to use such force as is reasonable to prevent the suicide of

another person or any act which the person believes on reasonable grounds would, if

committed, result in the suicide of another person. (Crimes Act 1900 – Sect. 1814)

It shall be lawful for collecting officers to receive certified checks drawn on National

and State banks and trust companies, during such time and under such regulations

as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, in payment for duties on imports,

and all public dues, including special customs deposits. (US Law Collection

– Title 19 – Customs and Duties15)

3.2. Authorisation in English legislative sentences

Authorisation confers power on a natural or legal person to perform an act which

otherwise that person would not be permitted to perform16 and can be formulated by

using the quasi modal phrases such as ‘be entitled to’, ‘be authorised’, ‘have the

right to...’ and so forth. All these phrases usually appear in the indicative tense.

‘Be entitled to’ = być uprawnionym do

To create a right, drafters should use “is/are entitled to”, not “shall be entitled to”. At

the same time, it must be noted that ‘shall be entitled to’ appears mostly in main

clauses which present statements of law, whereas ‘be entitled’ in the present tense

indicative mood occurs in subordinate clauses expressing fact-situation.

‘Be empowered’ = być umocowanym

The Board is empowered, as hereinafter provided, to prevent any person from engaging

in any unfair labor practice. (US Law Collection Title 29 – Labor17).

The agent who receives the fugitive into his custody shall be empowered to transport

him to the jurisdiction from which he has fled. (US Law Collection Title 18 -

Crimes and Criminal Procedure18)

‘Be authorised / authorised’ = być upoważnionym

A person is authorised to carry out a forensic procedure on a suspect with the informed

consent of the suspect. [Crimes Act 1914 (Act No. 12 of 1914)]

The corporation shall be authorized to charge a fee to the small business borrower,

in an amount determined by the office pursuant to regulation. (California Corporations

Code19)

XVII

3.2. Authorisation in English legislative sentences

14 Retrieved from: http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgibin/disp.pl/au/legis/act/consol%5fact/

ca190082/?quwry=title+%28+%22crime+act+1900%22+%29

15 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/19/ch1.html

16 See: S. Šarèević, op. cit., p. 145.

17 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/29/

18 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/

19 Retrieved from: http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/calawquery?codesection=corp&codebody=&

hits=20

‘Shall have the power to’ = mieć prawo do

The Secretary shall have the power to Delegation of functions; appointment of personnel,

technical assistance to make delegations, to appoint such agents and employees...

. (US Code Title US Law Collection Title 29 – Labor Section 62520)

3.3. Negation of command, prohibition and requirement in English legislative

sentences

As mentioned above, permission can also be construed as cancellation of a command,

prohibition or requirement. This is done by means of negation.

Use of ‘shall’ in permissions

Generally, drafters are advised against using ‘shall’ to grant permissions. According

to drafting manual of North Dakota21, ‘shall not’ and ‘no person shall’ mean that no

one is required to act. In other words, a provision that includes one of these phrases

negates the obligation, but not permission to act. Thus it has been suggested that in

prohibiting action, drafters should avoid ‘shall not’ and use ‘may not’ instead. This

approach, however, is not in line with Coode’s recommendations; for Coode ‘it shall

not be lawful’ expresses a prohibition which in fact can be better formulated by

using ‘no person shall’. Coode’s suggestions have been accepted in Britain and the

Commonwealth.

(1) ‘shall not be required’ = nie jest wymagany

The Secretary of State shall not be required by subsection (5) to lay before Parliament,

or may exclude from what he does to lay, anything the publication of which, in

his opinion- (a) would be against the interests of national security; (b) could prejudice

the prevention or detection of crime or the apprehension or prosecution of offenders;

or (c) could jeopardise the safety of any person. (Police Reform Act 200222)

(2) ‘shall not require’ = nie wymaga

In prescribing regulations under paragraph (1), the Secretary - (A) shall not require

any person to file returns on magnetic media unless such person is required to file at

least 250 returns during the calendar year, and (B) shall take into account (among

other relevant factors) the ability of the taxpayer to comply at reasonable cost with

the requirements of such regulations. (US Law Collection Title 26 – Internal Revenue

Code23)

(3) ‘No... shall be required’ = nie wymaga się

No person shall be required to deduct and withhold any amount under subsection

(a) with respect to a disposition if paragraph (2), (3), (4), (5), or (6) applies to the

transaction. (US Law Collection Title 26 – Internal Revenue Code)

XVIII

Introduction to legal translation

20 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/29/

21 2003 Legislative Drafting Manual, available at: http://www.state.nd.us/lr/information/

bills/docs/pdf/part6.pdf

22 Retrieved from: http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2002/20020030.htm

23 Retrieved from: http://uscode.house.gov/title_26.htm

(4) ‘Nothing... shall require’ = nie wymaga się

Nothing in this section shall require the payment of tax with respect to any calendar

quarter or other period if the tax under section 3301 for such period, plus any unpaid

amounts for prior periods in the calendar year, does not exceed $100. (US Law Collection

Title 26 – Internal Revenue Code)

3.4. Permission and authorisation in Polish legislative sentences

The Polish performative verbs that express permission24 are wolno, móc, zezwalać,

dopuszczać and descriptive forms such as być dozwolonym, być dopuszczalnym. See

the following examples:

(i) wolno = ‘shall be permissible’

Wolno zatrudniać tylko tych młodocianych, którzy: 1) ukończyli co najmniej

gimnazjum, 2) przedstawią świadectwo lekarskie stwierdzające, że praca danego

rodzaju nie zagraża ich zdrowiu. (KP Art. 191 § 1)

It shall be permissible to employ only those young adults who: 1) have completed

at least junior high school; 2) present a medical certificate stating that work of a particular

type is not hazardous to their health. (PLC)

(ii) wolno = ‘shall be free’

Jeżeli wartość wkładów niepieniężnych lub przedmiotów i praw majątkowych,

nabywanych przed zarejestrowaniem, ustalona przez biegłych rewidentów jest

niższa przynajmniej o jedną piątą od wartości, oznaczonej w sprawozdaniu

założycieli, wolno każdemu subskrybentowi zrzec się uczestnictwa w spółce. (KH25

Art. 325)

Where the value of non-cash contributions or propriety rights and things acquired

prior to registration, determined by expert auditors, is lower by at least one fifth than

the value indicated in the promoters’ report, each subscriber shall be free to resign

from participation in the company. (PCC226)

(iii) wolno = ‘shall be authorised’

Właścicielowi wolno w pościgu za rojem wejść na cudzy grunt, powinien jednak

naprawić wynikłą stąd szkodę. (KC Art. 182)

In pursuing the swarm the owner shall be authorised to enter the land of another

person but he has to redress the resulting damage. (PCC)

(iv) może = ‘may’ / ‘shall have the right’

Odwołać prokurę może każdy wspólnik mający prawo prowadzenia spraw spółki.

(KSH Art. 41 § 2)

The commercial power of attorney may be revoked by any partner who has the right

to manage the affairs of the partnership. (PCCC)

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3.4. Permission and authorisation in Polish legislative sentences

24 Wronkowska and Zieliński use the term ‘competence’ (kompetencja) in reference to permission

and authorisation. (See: Problemy i zasady redagowania tekstów prawnych, Warszawa,

Urząd Rady Ministrów)

25 Kodeks handlowy (KH).

26 D. Kierzkowska & A. Wiśniewski (ed.), The Polish Commercial Code, Warszawa, 1998,

(PCC2).

Every partner having the right to conduct affairs of the partnership shall have the

right to revoke the procuration. (PCOCPAC)

In Polish legislative texts, there is also można to be found. It is another form of móc,

and it occurs in subjectless constructions. Polish legislators use można when they

address the general public; they do not name the legal subject of the norm. This

should be obvious from the context.

See the example below:

(v) można = ‘may’

Potrącenia z tytułów wymienionych w § 1 i 2 można również dokonać z urzędu.

(OP Art. 64 § 3)27

Set-offs under the rights listed in §§ 1 and 2 may also be made ex officio. (AORFT)28

(vi) jest dopuszczalny = ‘is possible’

Układ jest dopuszczalny tylko wtedy, gdy zapewnione jest zaspokojenie wierzycieli

uprzywilejowanych i wierzycieli masy upadłości, chyba że zgodzą się oni na

zawarcie układu. (PU Art. 174)

The arrangement is possible only where a guarantee exists for the satisfaction of

preferential creditors and creditors of the bankruptcy estate, or where they have

agreed to the making of the arrangement. (PCC)

(vii) jest dopuszczalne = ‘is admissible’

Potrącenie jednak jest dopuszczalne, jeżeli nabywca stał się wierzycielem upadłego

wskutek spłacenia jego długu,... .(PU Art. 34 § 1)

The set-off is admissible, however, where the transferee has become the bankrupt’s

creditor by paying off his debt... .(PCC)

(viii) jest dopuszczalne = ‘may’

Stosowanie niebezpiecznych substancji i niebezpiecznych preparatów chemicznych

jest dopuszczalne pod warunkiem zastosowania oerodków zapewniających

pracownikom ochronę ich zdrowia i życia. (KP Art. 221§ 3)

Hazardous chemical substances and preparations may be used on condition that

measures are taken to protect the health and life of employees. (PLC)

(ix) dopuszczalne jest = ‘may’ / ‘shall be allowed’

Dopuszczalne jest używanie w obrocie skrótu „sp. j.” (KSH Art. 24 § 2)

The partnership may use the abbreviated form „sp. j.” in business dealings. (CCC1)

The abbreviation „sp.j.” may be used in business dealings. (PCCC)

The abbreviation „sp.j.” shall be allowed to be used in trading. (PCOCPAC)

(x) jest dozwolone = ‘shall be permitted’ / ‘shall be allowed’ / ‘may’

Wprzypadkach określonych w § 1 pkt. 1 i 2 nabycie akcji własnych przez spółkę jest

dozwolone tylko wtedy, gdy zostały spełnione łącznie następujące warunki:

1) nabyte akcje zostały w pełni pokryte. (KSH Art. 362 § 2)

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27 Ordynacja podatkowa (OP).

28 K. Miller and J. Yrkoski, Ordynacja Podatkowa. Act on Rules for Taxation,Warszawa 2002,

(AORFT).

Under the circumstances referred to in § (1) and (2) above, the acquisition by the

company of its own shares shall be permitted only upon joint fulfilment of the following

conditions: (1) the acquired shares have been fully paid up. (CCC1)

In the events stipulated in § 1 points 1 and 2, the acquisition of its own shares by the

company shall be allowed only if the following conditions have been all satisfied:

1) the acquired shares have been paid for in full. (PCCC)

In the cases referred to in paragraph 1, subparagraphs 1 and 2, the company may acquire

its own shares only if the following conditions have been satisfied jointly:

1) acquired shares are fully paid up. (PCOCPAC)

(xi) zezwala = ‘permit’

Do przestrzegania tajemnicy skarbowej obowiązane są również inne osoby, którym

udostępniono informacje objęte tajemnicą skarbową, chyba że na ich ujawnienie

zezwala przepis praw. (OP Art. 294 § 4)

Other persons to whom information covered by fiscal confidentiality was made accessible

shall also observe fiscal confidentiality, unless the provisions of law permit

the disclosure of such. (AORFT)

3.5. Explicit limitation in permissions in Polish legislative sentences

Some prohibitions can be transformed into permissions by making the statement of

law positive as well as the excluded condition. In Polish jedynie and/or tylko are

used to introduce the condition:

(i) może jedynie i tylko = ‘may only and if’ / ‘shall not other than and only’

Udział może być umorzony jedynie po wpisie spółki do rejestru i tylko w przypadku,

gdy umowa spółki tak stanowi. (KSH Art. 199 § 1)

A share may be redeemed only after the company has been registered and if the articles

of association so provide. (CCC1)

A share may be redeemed only following registration of the company in the register

and only if the articles of association so provide. (PCCC)

Shares shall not be redeemed other than upon the company being entered in the

register and only where the company deed so provides. (PCOCPAC)

(ii) mogą tylko w przypadku gdy = may only if / can only where / may only in the

case if

Nowe interesy mogą być podejmowane tylko w przypadku, gdy jest to niezbędne do

ukończenia spraw w toku. (KSH Art. 77)

New business may be undertaken only if this is indispensable for the closing of the

current business. (CCC1)

New business can be transacted only where this is necessary to close the business in

progress. (PCCC)

New interests may be undertaken only in the case if it is necessary to finish the

pending matters. (PCOCPAC)

3.6. Negative obligation in Polish legislative sentences

As asserted above, permission can also be expressed by negation of obligation. Occasionally,

the Polish drafter resorts to the negation of the modal auxiliary musieć,

XXI

3.6. Negative obligation in Polish legislative sentences

that of other performative verbs such as wymagać, obowiązywać and the negation of

descriptive forms such as być zobowiązanym, być obowiązanym. Negation is manifested

in Polish by means of negative markers. They are either free forms such as the

negative particle nie or affixes.

(i) nie musi – ‘does not have to’

świadek nie musi być obecny przy czynnościach kontrolnych dotyczących przeprowadzenia

dowodu z ksiąg, ewidencji, zapisków lub innych dokumentów. (OP Art.

288 § 3)

The witness does not have to be present for audit acts relating to gathering evidence

from books, records, notes, or other documents. (AORFT)

(ii) nie jest obowiązany = ‘shall not be obliged’ / ‘shall not be obligated’

Komandytariusz nie jest obowiązany do zwrotu tego, co pobrał tytułem zysku na

podstawie sprawozdania finansowego,... (KSH Art. 112 § 4)

Alimited partner shall not be obliged to return whatever he received as profit on the

basis of the financial statements. (CCC1)

A limited partner shall not be obligated to return what he received in respect of

profit under the financial report. (PCCC)

A limited partner shall not be required to refund what he collected as profit on the

basis of financial statement. (PCOCPAC)

(iii) nie wymaga = ‘shall not be necessary’

Projekt rozporządzenia, o którym mowa w § 1, nie wymaga skierowania do

zaopiniowania przez organizacje związkowe i organizacje pracodawców. (KP Art.

24118)

It shall not be necessary to seek an opinion of trade union organizations and organizations

of employers on draft regulation referred to in paragraph. (PLC)

(iv) nie wymaga = ‘shall not require’

Orzeczenie o odpowiedzialności, o której mowa w § 1,..., nie wymaga uprzedniego

wydania decyzji określającej wysokość zaległości podatkowych spółki. (OP Art. 115

§ 4)

A decision [orzeczenie] on the liability referred to in § 1..., shall not require prior

issuance of an administrative specifying the amount of the partnership’s tax arrears.

(AORFT)

(v) nie być zobowiązanym – ‘shall not’

Wspólnicy którzy po upływie terminu sześciomiesięcznego, przewidzianego

w § 1 artykułu poprzedzającego, otrzymali w dobrej wierze przypadającą na nich

część majątku spółki, nie są zobowiązani do jej zwrotu celem pokrycia należności

wierzycieli. (KH Art. 276 § 2)

Shareholders who, after the expiry of the six-month period provided for under paragraph

1 of the preceding Article, have obtained in good faith the part of the company’s

assets due to them, shall not return it in order to cover the creditors’ claim.

(PCC2)

It must be remembered that ‘shall not’ may also be interpreted as prohibition to perform

a legal act – in this context to return the company’s assets – which may jeopar-

XXII

Introduction to legal translation

dise correct rendering of legal modality as such. In the case where construction approaches

of the same perfomative phrase vary among different TT recipients, it is

more advisable to use ‘shall not be required’, the interpretation of which is clear and

unambiguous to target receivers.

3.7. Authorisation in Polish legislative sentences

To convey an authorisation, the Polish drafter uses the following verbs and phrases

in the normative indicative:

(i) jest uprawniony = ‘shall be entitled’

Każdy wspólnik jest uprawniony i zobowiązany do prowadzenia spraw spółki. (KC)

Each partner shall be entitled and bound to manage the partnership’s affairs. (PCC)

(ii) uprawnia = ‘entitles’

Organ podatkowy, w drodze decyzji, określa wysokość straty poniesionej przez

podatnika, jeżeli wysokość straty różni się od wysokości wynikającej ze złożonej

deklaracji, a poniesienie straty, zgodnie z przepisami prawa podatkowego,

uprawnia do skorzystania z ulg podatkowych. (OP Art. 24)

A tax authority through an administrative decision shall specify the amount of a loss

suffered by a taxpayer if the amount of a loss differs from the amount proceeding

from a filed declaration and incurring a loss entitles tax reliefs to be used in accordance

with provisions on tax law. (AORFT)

(iii) uprawnienie przysługuje = ‘the right shall vest in’

Uprawnienie, o którym mowa w art. 64 § 1, przysługuje również podatnikom

w stosunku do gminy z tytułu: 1) prawomocnego wyroku sądowego wydanego na

podstawie art. 4201 Kodeksu cywilnego. (OP Art. 65 § 1)

The right referred to in Article 64 § 1 shall also vest in a taxpayer in relation to a district,

county, or province under: (1) final judicial judgement issued on the basis of

Article 4201 of the Civil Code. (AORFT)

(iv) uprawnienie przysługuje = ... ‘shall be entitled‘

Akcjonariuszowi spółki publicznej przysługuje uprawnienie do imiennego

świadectwa depozytowego wystawionego przez podmiot prowadzący rachunek

papierów wartościowych zgodnie z przepisami o publicznym obrocie papierami

wartościowymi. (KSH Art. 328 § 6)

A shareholder of a public company shall be entitled to receive a registered depository

certificate issued by a an entity maintaining a securities account pursuant to the

provisions of the Act on Public Trading in Securities. (CCC1)

(v) upoważnia = ‘entitle’

Prokura upoważnia do wszystkich czynności sądowych i pozasądowych, jakie

są związane z prowadzeniem jakiegokolwiek przedsiębiorstwa zarobkowego.

(KH Art. 61)

The right of commercial representation shall entitle to all judicial and extrajudicial

acts connected with running any type of a profit making enterprise. (PCC2)

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3.7. Authorisation in Polish legislative sentences

(vi) upoważnia = ‘shall authorise’

Kto przekazuje drugiemu (odbiorcy przekazu) świadczenie osoby trzeciej (przekazanego),

upoważnia tym samym odbiorcę przekazu do przyjęcia, a przekazanego

do spełnienia świadczenia na rachunek przekazującego. (KC Art. 921)

Whoever transfers to another party (the remittee) a performance of a third party (the

remitter) shall authorise thereby the remittee to accept the performance and the

remitter to effect it on the account of the remitting party. (PCC)

(vii) ma prawo – ‘shall have the right’ / ‘shall be entitled’ / ‘is entitled’

Jeżeli w drodze egzekucji ma nastąpić sprzedaż udziału, (...) spółka ma prawo

przedstawić osobę, która nabędzie udział (...). (KSH Art. 185 § 1)

Where a share ... is to be disposed of through execution, the company shall have the

right to designate a person who shall acquire the share... .(CCC1)

If, in the course of enforcement proceedings, there is to be a sale of the share... the

company shall be entitled to present the party who will acquire the share... .(PCCC)

Where a share to be sold under execution is ... transferable only subject to the consent

of the company... the company is entitled to present a person willing to acquire

the share... .(PCOCPAC)

(viii) jest umocowany – ‘shall be entitled’

W braku odmiennej umowy lub uchwały wspólników każdy wspólnik jest umocowany

do reprezentowania spółki w takich granicach, w jakich jest uprawomocniony

do prowadzenia jej spraw. (KC Art. 866)

In the absence of contrary provisions of the deed of partnership or a partner’s resolution,

each partner shall be entitled to represent the partnership within the limits to

which he is entitled to conduct its affairs. (PCC)

3.8. Obligation and entitlement in Polish legal provisions

Occasionally, legislators wish to include both obligation and power within the same

provision. This is done by use of doublets: być uprawnionym i obowiązanym and

mieć prawo i obowiązek. See the following examples:

(i) jest uprawniony i obowiązany = ‘shall have the right and duty’ / ‘shall be entitled

and obligated to’ / ‘may and shall...’

Odwołany członek zarządu jest uprawniony i obowiązany złożyć wyjaśnienia (...).

(KSH Art. 370 § 3)

The removed member of the management board shall have the right and duty to

furnish explanations. (CCC1)

A dismissed member of the management board shall be entitled and obligated to

offer explanations.... .(PCCC)

The recalled member of the management board may and shall... furnish explanations.

(PCOCPAC)

(ii) są obowiązani i uprawnieni = ‘shall have the right and duty’ / ‘shall be obligated

and entitled’ / ‘shall have the duty and right to’

Jeżeli zarząd jest wieloosobowy, wszyscy jego członkowie są obowiązani i uprawnieni

do wspólnego prowadzenia spraw spółki (...). (KSH Art. 371 § 1)

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Introduction to legal translation

Where the management board is composed of more than one member, all of its

members shall have the right and duty to jointly conduct the company’s affairs.

(CCC1)

If the management board comprises several members, all the members shall be obligated

and entitled to jointly manage the affairs of the company. (PCCC)

Where the management board consists of more than one person, all members shall

have the duty and right to jointly manage the affairs of the company. (PCOCPAC)

4. Prohibition in legislative sentences

4.1. Prohibition in English legislative sentences

Prohibitions are legal speech acts with the illocutionary force of forbidding29. The

most common type of prohibitions are acts which person/s and / or authorities are explicitly

forbidden to perform and whose performance is punishable by sanction.

Thus,Weinberger regards such prohibitions as negative commands: X is obliged to

refrain from performing act A; ifXperforms act A, he/she/it is subject to punishment.

Following this logic any criminal provisions are taken to constitute prohibitions.

The Anglophone drafters may use ‘shall not’, ‘may not’ and ‘must not’ in legal

prohibitions. To impose a duty not to act – a prohibition – the drafter may use ‘shall’,

‘must’, or ‘may’ combined with ‘not’ as follows:

The commissioner shall not impose an additional fee for late applications.

A person must not operate a motor vehicle in violation of motor vehicle noise

rules adopted by the pollution control agency.

4.1.1. Use of ‘may not’ in legal prohibitions

According to the “2003 Legislative Drafting Manual” of North Dakota, the drafter

should use ‘may not’ if a right, privilege or power is intended to be denied. In other

words, ‘may not’ negates the permission to act and functions as a complete prohibition.

Phrase Interpretation

The commissioner may not issue

a license.

It is beyond the power of the commissioner

to issue the license.

A person may not operate a without

a license.

Aperson is not permitted to do the specified

act without a license.

The clerk may not release the report. The clerk is prohibited from releasing

the report.

Although this construction is very popular in American legislative drafting, caution

must be taken since ‘may not’ can also be misread especially by people who are not

acquainted with the conventions of legal drafting or with the principles of statutory

interpretation.

XXV

4.1. Prohibition in English legislative sentences

29 See: S. Šarèević, op. cit., p. 146.

4.1.2. ‘No ... may’ (nie można) as legal prohibition

Other expressions of prohibition include ‘no... may’. It must be pointed out that the

very phrase ‘no person may’ is considered to be a ‘verbal overkill’ as it provides unneeded

emphasis.

Phrase Interpretation

no person may no person is authorised to

(i) No election may be made in respect of ordinary shares in a venture capital trust.

(Finance Act 200230)

Of particular note is the fact that in the majority of cases ‘no... may’ appears with

passive voice constructions.

4.1.3. ‘Must not’ as legal prohibition

Negation of the modal auxiliary ‘must’ is also used to express prohibition in English

legislative texts. Unlike ‘may not’, ‘must not’ denotes clear and unambiguous prohibition

of a legal action. See the following examples:

‘must not’ = nie może / nie wolno

(i) The occupier of premises must not refuse or unduly delay entry to the premises

by a person entitled to enter the premises under section 285B or 285C. (Workplace

Relations Act 199631)

4.1.4. ‘Is/are not to...’ in legal prohibition

The performative ‘is not to/are not to’ can be construed as a command not to perform

some act. See the following example:

For the purposes of paragraph (3)(e), junior wage provisions are not to be treated

as constituting discrimination by reason of age. (Workplace Relations Act 1996)

4.1.5. Other descriptive patterns to express prohibition

There are also some other descriptive patterns which express prohibition which are

formulated by negating permission to perform a given act. They include ‘it is unlawful...’,

‘no... shall be permissible’, ‘no... shall be permitted’. According to American

drafting manuals, the phrase ‘it is unlawful’ should be replaced with ‘a person may

not’.

It must be noted that the phrase ‘it is unlawful’ is still used by drafters. See the example

below:

‘it is unlawful’ = jest niezgodne z prawem

(i) It is unlawful to offer or display for sale or sell any good, with or without a Government

trademark, in a manner that falsely suggests that it is Indian produced, an

Indian product, or the product of a particular Indian or Indian tribe or Indian arts or

crafts organisation, resident within the United States. (US Law Collection, Title 19.

Customs and Duties, Part I. Chapter 53, Sec. 115932)

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Introduction to legal translation

30 Retrieved from: http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2002/20020023.htm

31 Retrieved from: http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/download.cgi/download/au/legis/

cth/consol_act/wra1996220.txt

32 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/1159.html

Moreover, ‘it shall be unlawful’ is quite a popular pattern in the English legislative

texts. It usually occurs either as:

(1) it shall be unlawful forXto doY, whereXis a legal subject andYis a legal action

It shall be unlawful for any person knowingly to distribute explosive materials to

any individual who: (1) is under twenty-one years of age; (2) has been convicted in

any court of a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year; (3)

is under indictment for a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding

one year; (4) is a fugitive from justice; (5) is an unlawful user of or addicted to any

controlled substance (as defined in section 102 of the Controlled Substances Act.

(US Law Collection, Title 18 – Crimes and Criminal Procedure33)

(2) or it shall be unlawful to do Y, where Y is a legal action, and a legal subject is not

expressly named.

It shall be unlawful to make entry of any vessel or to unlade the cargo or any part

thereof of any vessel elsewhere than at a port of entry: Provided, That upon good

cause therefor being shown, the Commissioner of Customs may permit entry of any

vessel to be made at a place other than a port of entry designated by him, under such

conditions as he shall prescribe. (US Law Collection, Title 19 – Customs and

Duties)

Other descriptive patterns to express prohibition include as follows:

‘No... shall be permitted’ = nie zezwala się

Notwithstanding paragraph (1), no employer shall be permitted to reduce the

hourly wage rate prescribed by certificate under this subsection in effect on June 1,

1986, of any handicapped individual for a period of two years from such date without

prior authorization of the Secretary. (US Law Collection, Title 29 – Labor34)

‘No... shall be permissible’ – jest niedozwolone / nie dopuszcza się

No postponement shall be permissible because of general congestion of the court’s

calendar. (US Law Collection Title 18 – Crimes and Criminal Procedure)

4.2. Negating privilege or right in English legislative sentences

To negate a right, the drafter should use ‘be not entitled to’35.

(i) An employee is not entitled to guarantee payments in respect of more than the

specified number of days in any period of three months. (Employment Rights Act

199636)

(ii) ‘No... shall be entitled’ = nikt nie jest uprawniony

No person shall be entitled to recover any amount by reason of this section from

XXVII

4.2. Negating privilege or right in English legislative sentences

33 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/

34 Retrieved from http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/29/

35 This has been recommended in: Administrative Rules Drafting Manual available at

http://www.google.pl/search?q=cache:jwZFS_Xhlm0C:www.on.gov/legislative/pdf/

IACDrftMan.PDF+%22drafting+manual%22&hl=pl&ie=UTF-8&inlang=pl#37

36 Retrieved from: http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts1996/1996018.htm

a trust to which section 664 applies (determined without regard to this section). (US

Law Collection – Title 26 – Internal Revenue Code)

Apart from the negation of ‘be entitled’, Anglophone drafters use ‘shall not authorize’,

‘shall not be authorized’, ‘nothing... shall authorise’, ‘nothing... shall authorise’,

‘shall have no right’, ‘is not empowered’, ‘shall not have power’ and ‘no...

shall have power’. See the following examples:

(iii) ‘Shall not authorize’ = nie upoważnia

This section shall not authorize any assessment of tax for the preceding taxable

year which is made after the due date of the taxpayer’s return for such taxable year

(determined with regard to any extensions. (US Law Collection – Title 26 – Internal

Revenue Code)

(iv) ‘Shall not be authorized’ = nie jest upoważniony

Those employees shall not be authorized to take any person into custody even

though the person to whom the notice is delivered does not give his or her written

promise to appear in court. (California Corporations Code)

(v) ‘Nothing... shall authorise’ = nie upoważnia

Nothing in sub-paragraph (6) shall authorise the Commission to require the disclosure

of any information the disclosure of which to the appellant has been or is capable

of being withheld by virtue of regulations made under section 20(5). (Police Reform

Act 2002)

(vi) ‘Shall have no right’ = nie ma prawa

Subject to subsection (2), a subsidiary which is a member of its holding company

shall have no right to vote at meetings of the holding company or any class of members

thereof. (Companies Act 196337)

(vii) ‘Is not empowered’ = nie jest umocowany

The Court is not empowered to make a particular order under subsection (1) if the

order would prejudice a right, or an estate in property, acquired by a person (other

than the non licensee) in good faith, for valuable consideration and without notice of

the facts entitling the client to give the notice. (Corporations Act 2001 of Canada38)

(viii) ‘Shall not have power’ = nie ma prawa

Where an order under this section requires the company not to make any, or any

specified, alteration in its memorandum or articles, then, notwithstanding anything

in the Companies Acts, 1963 to 1983, the company shall not have power without

the leave of the court to make any such alteration in breach of that requirement.

[Companies (Amendment) Act 198339]

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37 Retrieved from: http://www.bailii.org/ie/legis/nu,_acta/ca1963107.txt

38 Retrieved from: http://scaleplus.law.gov.au/cgi-bin/download.pl?/scale/data/pasteact/

3/3448

39 Retrieved from: http://www.bailii.org/ie/legis/num_act/ca1983187.txt

4.3. Prohibition in Polish legislative texts

Prohibition in Polish legislative texts is mainly expressed by way of negation of such

permission-granting verbs as wolno, może.

(i) nie wolno = no... may be / may not / no... shall be

W czasie trwania spółki nie wolno zwracać wspólnikom wniesionych wkładów tak

w całości, jak i w częoeci (...). (KSH Art. 189 § 1)

... no full or partial reimbursement of contributions may be made to the shareholders.

(CCC1)

During the term of the company, the contributions made by the shareholders may

not be returned to them in whole or in part... . (PCCC)

Throughout the lifetime of the company no full or partial refund of contributions

shall be made to the shareholders. (PCOCPAC)

(ii) nie wolno = ‘must not’

Podczas trwania spółki nie wolno zwracać akcjonariuszom dokonanych wpłat na

akcje ani w całości, ani w częoeci, wyjąwszy przypadki, przewidziane w dziale

niniejszym. (KH Art. 353)

During the company’s lifetime the payments for shares must not be returned, either

in full or partly, to shareholders, save only for cases provided for under the present

Section. (PCC2)

(iii) nie wolno = ‘shall not be allowed’

Przechowawcy nie wolno używać rzeczy bez zgody składającego, chyba że jest to

konieczne do jej zachowania w stanie nie pogorszonym. (KC Art. 839)

The keeper shall not be allowed to use the thing without the consent of the depositor

unless that is necessary to preserve it in a non-deteriorated condition. (PCC)

(iv) nie wolno = ‘may not’

Właścicielowi nie wolno dokonywać robót ziemnych w taki sposób, żeby to groziło

nieruchomościom sąsiednim utratą oparcia. (KC Art. 147)

The owner may not carry out earth work in such a manner that it would threaten

neighbouring real estates with a loss of support. (PCC)

(v) nie wolno = ‘it shall not be permissible’

Nie wolno dopuoecić pracownika do pracy, do której wykonywania nie posiada

on wymaganych kwalifikacji lub potrzebnych umiejętności, a także dostatecznej

znajomości przepisów oraz zasad bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy. (KP Art. 2373 § 1)

It shall not be permissible to allow an employee to work in posts for which he/she

lacks required qualifications, necessary skills and sufficient knowledge of the provisions

of law and rules of work safety and hygiene. (PLC)

4.3.1. Nie móc as prohibition

Nie może can also be used to impose a legal ban in Polish legislative texts. It must be

noted, however, that the modal auxiliary móc (infinitive) is ambiguous since it may

be read in many different ways.

XXIX

4.3. Prohibition in Polish legislative texts

(i) nie może = must not / may not / cannot

Przedmiotem wkładu do spółki kapitałowej nie może być prawo niezbywalne lub

świadczenie pracy bądź usług. (KSH Art. 14 § 1)

Anon-transferable right or performance of work or service must not be the object of

a contribution. (CCC1)

An inalienable right or the provision of work or services may not constitute a contribution.

(PCCC)

The negation of nie można has also been interpreted in a number of different ways,

which resulted in a variety of English quasi-modal expressions as follows:

(ii) nie można = ‘cannot’ / ‘may not’ / ‘nor can’ / ‘shall not’ / ‘neither may’

Wynagrodzenia za usługi świadczone przy powstaniu spółki nie można wypłacać ze

oerodków wpłaconych na pokrycie kapitału zakładowego, jak również zaliczać na

poczet wkładu wspólnika. (KSH Art. 158 § 2)

Payment for services provided upon incorporation of the company cannot be made

from the funds paid to the share capital and may not be credited towards the shareholder’s

contribution. (CCC1)

Remuneration for the services provided upon creation of the company may not be

paid from the funds paid in for the share capital, nor can it be credited towards the

shareholder’s contribution. (PCCC)

Remuneration for services rendered towards the company’s coming into existence

shall not be disbursed out of moneys paid in towards the initial capital, and neither

may it be credited to a shareholder’s contribution. (PCOCPC)

(iii) nie można = ‘shall not’

Nie można ogłosić upadłości państwowych i komunalnych jednostek organizacyjnych,

chyba że ustawa wyłącza odpowiedzialność Skarbu Państwa i gminy za ich

zobowiązania, Kasy Chorych, instytucji i organizacji utworzonych w drodze ustawy.

(PU Art. 3 § 1)

State and municipal organizational entities shall not be declared bankrupt except in

the case where an Act excludes the liability of the State Treasury and a commune for

their obligations, as well as of the National Health Insurance Funds, and the institutions

and organizations established pursuant to the provisions of statutory law. (BL)

A great variety of translation ‘solutions’ derives from the inherent vagueness and

fuzziness of nie można which can denote either lack of possibility or prohibition.

The above examples show also different interpretation approaches adopted by particular

translators (British vs. American drafting) who do follow TL norms indicative

of the drafting styles they are familiar with.

4.3.2. Other ways of expressing prohibition in Polish legislative sentences

(i) zakaz dotyczy = ‘prohibition shall apply’

Zakaz ten dotyczy również obejmowania lub nabywania udziałów... . (KSH Art. 200)

This prohibition shall also apply to subscription for or acquisition ... of such

shares... . (CCC1)

XXX

Introduction to legal translation

This prohibition shall also apply to the subscription for, acquisition ... of the

shares... . (PCCC)

This prohibition shall apply equally to the taking up, acquisition ... of such

shares... . (PCOCPC)

(ii) stosuje się zakaz = ‘shall be bound by non-’ / ‘non-... shall apply’ / ‘prohibition

shall apply’

Do członków takich stosuje się zakaz konkurencji... (KSH Art. 390 § 3)

Such members shall be bound by the non-competition obligation referred to in

Article 380. (CCC1)

The non-competition rule referred to in Art. 380 shall apply to such members.

(PCCC)

The competition prohibition referred to in Article 380 shall apply to such members.

(PCOCPAC)

(iii) zakaz obowiązuje = ‘prohibition shall bind’ / ‘prohibition shall apply’

W okresie likwidacji zakaz konkurencji obowiązuje tylko osoby będące likwidatorami.

(KSH Art. 69)

During liquidation, the prohibition of competition shall bind only the liquidators.

(CCC1)

During liquidation, the prohibition on competitive activity shall apply only to persons

serving as liquidators. (PCCC)

During liquidation, the prohibition of competition shall only apply to persons being

the liquidators. (PCOCPAC)

4.4. Prohibition as lack of entitlement in Polish legislative sentences

As mentioned above, some prohibitions may take the form of negations of permissions

and authorisations. These include as follows:

(a) nie przysługuje prawo = ‘is not entitled’

Wierzycielowi nie służy prawo do zwrotu kosztów czynności podjętych przez niego

w postępowaniu upadłościowym. (PU Art. 86 § 1)

The creditor is not entitled to the reimbursement of the costs of the acts he has performed

in the bankruptcy proceedings. (PCC)

(b) nie przysługuje prawo = ‘shall not be vested with the right’ / ‘shall not have

the right’

Akcjonariuszowi nie przysługuje prawo wypowiedzenia umowy spółki. (KSH

Art. 149 § 2)

Ashareholder shall not be vested with the right to terminate the statutes. (CCC1)

A shareholder shall not have the right to terminate the articles of association.

(PCCC)

A shareholder shall not have the right to terminate a partnership deed.

(PCOCPAC)

(a) nie jest dopuszczalne = ‘is not admissible’

Potrącenie nie jest dopuszczalne, jeżeli wierzyciel stał się dłużnikiem masy

upadłości. (PU Art. 36)

XXXI

4.4. Prohibition as lack of entitlement in Polish legislative sentences

The set-off is not admissible where the creditor has become the debtor to the bankruptcy

estate. (PCC)

(c) nie jest dopuszczalny = ‘may not’ / ‘shall not be permitted’ / ‘shall not be admissible’

Nie jest dopuszczalny podział spółki akcyjnej, jeżeli kapitał zakładowy nie został

pokryty w całości. (KSH Art. 528 § 1)

A joint-stock company may not be divided if its share capital has not been fully paid

up. (CCC1)

A division of a joint-stock company shall not be permitted where the share capital

has not been paid in full. (PCCC)

Adivision of a joint-stock company shall not be admissible unless the initial capital

was fully paid up. (PCOCPAC)

(b) nie ma prawa = ‘shall not have the right’ / ‘may not’

W spółce jednoosobowej w organizacji jedyny wspólnik nie ma prawa reprezentowania

spółki. (KSH Art. 162)

In a single-member company in organisation, the sole shareholder shall not have

the right to represent the company. (CCC1)

In a single-shareholder company in organisation, the single shareholder shall not

have the right to represent the company. (PCCC)

In a sole-shareholder company in organization, the sole shareholder may not represent

the company. (PCOCPAC)

4.5. Lack of authorisation and obligation in Polish legislative sentences

Occasionally, the Polish legislator may want to express lack of authorisation and obligation

within the same legislative sentence. Then s/he uses such phrases as nie być

uprawnionym ani zobowiązanym:

(i) nie jest uprawniony ani zobowiązany = ‘shall be neither entitled nor obligated’

Wspólnik nie jest uprawniony ani zobowiązany do podwyższenia umówionego

wkładu. (KH Art. 104)

A partner shall be neither entitled nor obligated to increase the agreed contribution.

(PCC2)

It must be noted that the practice of expressing both lack of obligation and

authorisation within one legislative sentence is not a common one.

5. Legal subject

Legislative texts are written in the third person singular. As Bowers correctly observes,

“third person form implies a neutral transmitter and it is the form in which to

present a statement as authoritative”40. The legal subject should be construed here as

a person to whom the norm is addressed which may or may not be the grammatical

subject of a legislative sentence.

XXXII

Introduction to legal translation

40 See: S. Šarèević, op. cit., p. 175.

5.1. Legal subject in English legislative sentences

In the case of universal provisions, where norms are applicable to everyone,

Anglophone drafters make use of ‘every person’, ‘all persons’, ‘each person’, ‘any

person’, ‘whoever’, ‘a person who’, and the negative ‘no person’. See the following

examples:

(i) Whoever, being a consul, or vice consul, or other person employed in the consular

service of the United States, knowingly certifies falsely to any invoice, or other

paper, to which his certificate is authorized or required by law, shall be fined under

this title or imprisoned not more than three years, or both. (Crimes and Criminal Procedure

– US Law Collection Title 18)

(ii) Subject to this section, every person who reports goods under subsection 95(1)

shall, at the time of reporting, furnish an officer at a customs office with the statistical

code for the goods. (Customs Act41)

(iii) No person shall, physically or otherwise, do or attempt to do any of the following:

(a) interfere with or molest an officer doing anything that the officer is authorized

to do under this Act; or (b) hinder or prevent an officer from doing anything

that the officer is authorized to do under this Act. (Customs Act)

(iv) Each person who conducts any wagering pool or lottery shall be liable for and

shall pay the tax under this subchapter on all wagers placed in such pool or lottery.

(US Law Collection Title 26 – Internal Revenue Code)

(v) A person who knowingly violates section 922(u) shall be fined under this title,

imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both. (Crimes and Criminal Procedure – US

Law Collection Title 18)

(vi) Subject to subsection (3), any person who is liable to pay an amount of duties in

respect of imported goods shall pay, in addition to the amount, interest at the specified

rate for the period beginning on the first day after the day the person became liable

to pay the amount and ending on the day the amount has been paid in full, calculated

on the outstanding balance of the amount. (Customs Act)

(vii) All persons liable for the tax on distilled spirits under paragraph (1) of this subsection,

or under subsection (a) or (b), or under any similar prior provisions of internal

revenue law, shall be relieved of any such liability at the time, as the case may be,

the distilled spirits are exported, deposited in a foreign-trade zone, used in the production

of wine, used in the production of nonbeverage wine or wine products,

deposited in customs bonded warehouses, laden as supplies upon, or used in the

maintenance or repair of, certain vessels or aircraft, or used in certain research, development,

or testing, as provided by law. (US Law Collection Title 26 - Internal

Revenue Code)

XXXIII

5.1. Legal subject in English legislative sentences

41 Retrieved from: http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-52.6/index.html

5.2. Legal subject in Polish legislative sentences

Polish drafters, on the other hand, apply impersonal formulations which constitute

grammatically subjectless constructions, such as nie wolno for ‘no person shall’,

można for ‘every person may’. Occasionally, the Polish negative pronoun – nikt is

used. See the following example:

Od dnia ogłoszenia w Monitorze Sądowym i Gospodarczym wpisu do rejestru nikt

nie może się powoływać w stosunku do spółki... . (KH Art. 23 § 1)

From the date of Monitor Sądowy i Gospodarczy, where the entry to register was

published, no one can claim with respect to the company... . (PCC2)

In the example above the translators used ‘no one’ for nikt, which in terms of lexis is

not the best choice to make; ‘no person’ seems to be more suitable here.

5.3. Legal subject in penal provisions

(i) kto = ‘whoever’ / ‘a person who’ / ‘any person who’

Kto, będąc członkiem zarządu spółki handlowej, dopuszcza do tego, że pisma

i zamówienia handlowe, o których mowa w art. 206 § 1 i art. 374 § 1, nie zawierają

danych określonych w tych przepisach - podlega grzywnie do 10 000 złotych. (KSH

Art. 595 § 1)

Whoever, being a member of the management board of a commercial company or

partnership allows that the letters and commercial orders, referred to in Article 206,

paragraph 1 and Article 374, paragraph 1, do not contain the particulars specified in

these provisions – shall be liable to a fine of up to 10,000 zlotys. (PCOCPAC)

A person who, while serving as a member of the management board of a commercial

company, allows that the written communications and orders referred to in Art.

206 § 1 and Art. 374 § 1, do not include the data set out in these provisions, shall be

subject to a fine of up to 10,000 zlotys. (PCCC)

Any person who, while acting in the capacity of a member of the management

board of a commercial company allows that the letters and commercial orders, referred

to in Article 206, § 1 and Article 374, § 1, do not contain data specified in said

Articles – shall be liable to a fine of up to 10,000 zlotys. (CCC1)

(ii) kto = ‘anyone who’

Kto złożył oświadczenie woli pod wpływem bezprawnej groźby drugiej strony lub

osoby trzeciej, ten też może uchylić się od skutków prawnych swego oświadczenia,

jeżeli z okoliczności wynika, że mógł się obawiać, iż jemu samemu lub innej osobie

grozi poważne niebezpieczeństwo osobiste lub majątkowe. (KC Art. 87)

Anyone who made a declaration of intent under the influence of an illegal threat

posed by the other party or a third person may evade the legal effects of the declaration

if it follows from the circumstances that he had a reason to fear that he or another

person was in serious danger with respect to their persons or property. (PCC)

(iii) sprawca czynu = ‘perpetrator of an act’

Jeżeli sprawca czynu określonego w § 1 lub 2 działa nieumyślnie, podlega karze

pozbawienia wolności do lat 2. (Art. 306 § 3 OP)

XXXIV

Introduction to legal translation

If the perpetrator of an act specified in § 1 or § 2 acted unintentionally, he shall be

subject to imprisonment up to two years. (AORFT)

6. Criminal sanction in legislative sentences

6.1. Criminal sanctions in English legislative sentences

In the case of legal norms which apply to all persons (the so-called universal norms),

the criminal sanction takes the following form:

A person who does X is liable / subject to punishment Y.

Any person who does X is liable to punishment Y.

Whoever does X is liable to punishment Y.

Whoever does X shall be punished Y.

See the examples below:

(i) Title 18. Part. 1. Sec. 2. (a)

Whoever commits an offense against the United States or aids, abets, counsels,

commands, induces or procures its commission, is punishable as a principal. (US

Code Collection, Title 18, Part 1, Chapter 1, Sec. 142)

(ii) Whoever is convicted of any crime prohibited by this chapter, which has resulted

in the death of any person, shall be subject also to the death penalty or to

imprisonment for life. (US Code Collection Title 18 Part 1, Chapter 2, Sec. 3443)

(iii) A person who, in furtherance or to escape detection of a major drug offense and

with the intent to intimidate, harass, injure, or maim, fires a weapon into a group of

two or more persons and who, in the course of such conduct, causes grave risk to any

human life shall be punished by a term of no more than 25 years, by fine under this

title, or both. [US Code Collection Title 18 Part 1, Sec. 36. (b) (1)44]

(iv) Whoever engages in the conduct constituting the offense shall be imprisoned

for not more than one year or fined in the amount set forth in this title, or both. [US

Code Collection Title 18 Part 1, Chapter 11, Sec. 216 (a) (1)45]

(v) Whoever obstructs, or attempts to obstruct, or in any way interferes with or prevents

the enforcement of this section, shall be liable to the penalties prescribed in

subsection (a). [US Code Collection Title 18 Part 1, Chapter 77, Sec. 1581. (1)46]

(vi) Any person who conspires to commit any offense defined in this section or section

1957 shall be subject to the same penalties as those prescribed for the offense

the commission of which was the object of the conspiracy. [US Code Collection Title

18 Part 1, Chapter 95, Sec. 1956 (h)47]

(vii) (c) Whoever receives, possesses, conceals, stores, barters, sells, or disposes of,

any property or money or other thing of value which has been taken or stolen from

XXXV

6.1. Criminal sanctions in English legislative sentences

42 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/1.html

43 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/34.html

44 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/36.html

45 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/216.html

46 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/1581.html

47 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/1956.html

a bank, credit union, or savings and loan association in violation of subsection (b),

knowing the same to be property which has been stolen shall be subject to the punishment

provided in subsection (b) for the taker. (US Code Collection Title 18 Part

1, Chapter 103, Sec. 211348)

6.2. Criminal sanction in Scottish legislation

In order to apply criminal sanction the Scottish drafter makes use of the following

patterns:

A person guilty of X shall be liable to punishment Y.

Any person who does X shall be liable to Y.

If P does X, then P shall be liable to Y.

See the following examples:

(i) ‘shall be liable to imprisonment’ = podlega uwięzieniu

(1) (5) Subject to subsection (6) below, a person guilty of an offence under section 1,

2 or 3 of this Act shall be liable—

(a) on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for any term of imprisonment up

to and including life imprisonment; and

(i) (on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 months.

[Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 199549]

(2) 5.—(1) Any person who has unlawful sexual intercourse with any girl under the

age of 13 years shall be liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for

life. [Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995]

(3) Any person who attempts to have unlawful sexual intercourse with any girl under

the age of 13 years shall be liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for

a term not exceeding two years or on summary conviction to imprisonment for

a term not exceeding three months. [Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act

1995]

(ii) ‘shall be liable to a fine’ = podlega karze grzywny

19.—(1) Where a public service vehicle or railway passenger vehicle is being operated

for the principal purpose of conveying passengers for the whole or part of

a journey to or from a designated sporting event, then—

(a) any person in possession of alcohol on the vehicle shall be guilty of an offence

and liable on summary conviction to imprisonment for a period not exceeding 60

days or a fine not exceeding level 3 on the standard scale or both. [Criminal Law

(Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995]

(iii) ‘shall be liable to be punished’ = podlega karze

14. If, in the trial of an indictment for rape or an offence under section 5(1) of this

Act, the jury—

(a) are not satisfied that the accused is guilty of the charge or of an attempt to commit

the charge; but

XXXVI

Introduction to legal translation

48 Retrieved from: http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/2113.html

49 Retrieved from: http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/Ukpga_19950039_en_1.htm

(b) are satisfied that the accused is guilty of an offence under section 5(2) or (3) or

7(2) or (3) of this Act, or of an indecent assault,

the jury may acquit the accused of the charge mentioned in paragraph (a) above, and

find him guilty of such offence as is mentioned in paragraph (b) or of an indecent assault,

and the accused shall be liable to be punished in the same manner as if he had

been convicted upon an indictment for such offence or “for indecent assault”. [Criminal

Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995]

(iv) ‘shall be liable to the penalties’ = podlega karom

11. (4) Every female who is proved to have, for the purposes of gain, exercised control,

direction or influence over the movements of a prostitute in such a manner as to

show that she is aiding, abetting or compelling her prostitution with any other person,

or generally, shall be liable to the penalties set out in subsection (1) above.

(Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 199550]

6.3. Criminal sanction in Polish legislative sentences

In order to express criminal sanction the Polish drafter uses customary phrases such

as podlegać karze.

Criminal provisions usually take the form of either a relative clause or a conditional

sentence as follows:

Whoever does X is liable to punishment Y. (Kto czyni X podlega karze Y.)

If P does X, then P is liable to punishment Y. (Jeżeli P czyni X, podlega karze Y.)

See the following examples:

(i) kto... podlega karze grzywny = ‘any person... shall be liable to a fine’

Kto, będąc odpowiedzialnym za stan bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy w zakładzie

pracy albo kierując pracownikami, nie przestrzega przepisów lub zasad

bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy, podlega karze grzywny. (KP Art. 283 § 1)

Any person responsible for work safety and hygiene in an employing establishment

or otherwise managing employees, who fails to observe the provisions on work

safety and hygiene, shall be liable to a fine. (PLC)

(ii) kto... podlega karze pozbawienia wolności = ‘anyone... shall be subject to imprisonment’

Kto, będąc obowiązanym do zachowania tajemnicy skarbowej, ujawnia informacje

objęte tą tajemnicą, podlega karze pozbawienia wolności do lat 5. (OP Art. 306. § 1)

Anyone obligated to observe fiscal confidentiality who discloses information covered

by such confidentiality shall be subject to imprisonment for up to five years.

(AORFT)

6.3.1. Alternative ways of punishment in Polish legislative sentences

The drafter may name alternative ways of punishment by using the phrase: podlega

karze ... albo karze... – when only one alternative can apply.

XXXVII

6.3. Criminal sanction in Polish legislative sentences

50 Retrieved from: http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/Ukpga_19950039_en_1.htm

(ii) albo = ‘or’

Jeżeli sprawca działa nieumyślnie podlega grzywnie, karze ograniczenia wolności

albo pozbawienia wolności do roku. (KSH Art. 587)

Where the perpetrator acts unintentionally – he shall be liable to a fine, a penalty